133. Unknowns

Attention to understanding and managing unknowns can enrich inter- and transdisciplinary endeavours and make them more robust, yet unknowns are largely ignored in inter- and transdisciplinary research, practice and education. It is useful to appreciate that there are different kinds of unknowns, including known unknowns, unknown knowns and unknown unknowns. It is also worth understanding finer grained differences illustrated in a taxonomy of unknowns and how they underscore the importance of: 1) terminology, 2) ignorance as both active and passive, as well as desirable and undesirable, 3) disciplinary differences, and 4) where risk fits in overall considerations of unknowns. Inter- and transdisciplinary endeavours can build on six ways of dealing with unknowns: reduction, banishment, acceptance, exploitation, surrender and denial. Thus, unknowns are important for developing a more comprehensive understanding of a problem, generating new ideas for action, helping decision makers avoid adverse unintended outcomes and nasty surprises, and understanding and managing diversity.