A Three-Dimensional Model of Emotional Display Rules: Model Invariance, External Validity, and Gender Differences

In this foundational study, we test display rules for a set of 24 theoretically derived emotions to discover the key emotional dimensions underlying this important construct. Participants (Sample 1 [exploratory factor analysis, EFA] N = 339, 18–77 years; Sample 2 [confirmatory factor analysis, CFA] N = 477, 20–81years) rated how important it was to control expressions of each emotion for them personally (self-rules). Sample 1 also gave ratings for other people (men-rules and women-rules). EFA revealed a three-dimensional (3D) structure, comprising emotions that have harmonious/affiliative (e.g., happiness, sympathy), vulnerable (e.g., sadness, shame), and disharmonious/dominant (e.g., anger, contempt) social implications. CFA confirmed the 3D model fit the data well, and demonstrated invariance between the two samples; men and women; different stages of the adult life span; and the three rule-types. The model also demonstrated good internal consistency and external validity via associations with individual differences in emotion regulation, emotion beliefs, and social anxiety. We then used the model to investigate theorized gender differences in display rules. Men’s and women’s self-rules did not differ, aligning with several previous studies. However, significant within-gender differences emerged across the three rule-types: Men believed it was more important for them and other men to control their expressivity than for women to, while women believed it was more important for them personally to control their expressivity than for everyone else to, including other women. Overall, our findings establish a novel model that highlights the social motivations underlying emotional display rules, paving the way for new understanding across contexts, cultural groups, and individuals.