Conclusion: Cooperation, collaboration, and communication in space

The creation of the U.S. Space Force at the end of 2019, France’s steps toward creating a similar dedicated military body, and NATO’s formal recognition of space as a military operational zone integral to international security were all markers of the beginning of a new era as of the second decade of this century. Although space-based technologies have been utilized by world militaries since the beginning of the space age in the 1960s, the militarization of space has not been on the public radar to the extent it now is, and the likelihood of space-based conflict has never been greater. At the same time, popular awareness of civil and commercial uses of space has also increased. In short, we are in a New Space Age, one that is equal parts commercial and political, and one which-arguably even more so than the first Space Age-has national and international security interests at its center. The need for ethically sound policy and law at this time is irrefutable, and it is in answer to this need that our contributing authors have tackled various challenging issues, applying their exceptional expertise. In addition to agreement as to current and future threats to national and global security stemming from the use-and misuse-of the space environment, there are many suggested measures for ameliorating the risk of conflict in space. A central theme in all of the chapters is that the best way to avoid capricious use of the space environment in wartime is to create a set of norms in peacetime, recognizing that shared use, rather than dominance, is the preferred outcome for all spacefaring nations.