Effectors of plant parasitic nematodes that re-program root cell development

Plant parasitic nematodes infect the roots of a wide range of host plants. Migratory endo- or ectoparasites feed off the roots temporarily, but sedentary endoparasites are biotrophic parasites that invade roots and establish a permanent feeding site by re-directing root cell development. Feeding sites develop after injection of nematode effectors into plant cells through a stylet. In this review, we concentrate on several recently-identified effectors and discuss their possible functions in re-directing root cell development. We give examples of effectors that regulate host gene expression, interact with specific host proteins or mimic plant signalling molecules.