Geochemical studies of present and past sea level

Reconstructing past changes in global sea level provides vital information about the evolution, dynamics, and sensitivity of Earth's climate system, such as naturally precedented rates of sea-level rise and timescales of ice-mass loss in relation to radiative forcing. Quantifying these processes requires well-resolved sea-level/ice-volume records with good age control, as well as temporal continuity over different climate states. Here, we give an overview of key geochemical approaches to reconstruct past sea levels, based on different geological archives: fossil corals, cave deposits, bivalves, marine sediments, and salt marshes. We give details of dating methodologies and the limitations associated with each approach, as well as case studies to serve as examples. We also briefly outline the methods used to measure recent sea-level change.