Rethinking East Asia's Historical Order: Heterarchy in China-Southeast Asia Relations

This paper re-examines the nature of order in early modern East Asia through the angle of China-Southeast Asia relations, challenging prevailing views in international relations scholarship. Traditionally, these relations are viewed either as hierarchical, with China providing regional order, or as asymmetric, where power disparities often generated tensions that required China to normalize relations within a framework of deference and autonomy. I argue that both views overlook China's limited exercise of authority and the dynamic interactions involving Southeast Asia, China, and the wider world. By studying how Southeast Asian polities localized the ideas and practices of external civilizations to advance political rule, I demonstrate that Southeast Asia was marked by a heterarchical and pluralist order, characterized by multiple overlapping hierarchical relations with the minimal goals of survival and coexistence. China was not a hegemon but a hegemonic contender alongside several major Southeast Asian kingdoms, and China participated in stabilizing the hegemonic rivalries by facilitating the development of heterarchy. This analysis offers a nuanced understanding of China-Southeast Asia relations and asserts that the stability of the regional order hinged on both parties' capacity to accommodate differences in social statuses and ranks, rather than on China's role as the hegemon.