Student responses to the absence of a functional university system: alternative pathways to higher education in Myanmar

Higher education can play an important role in social transformation, contributing to the development of civil society, democracy and national reconciliation in transitional societies that have experienced authoritarian rule or civil war, as in Myanmar. Higher education plays an essential role in producing new leaders equipped with a number of skills that promote democratic values and encourage civic engagement in their communities. Indeed, a key purpose of higher education is to supply societys 21st century needs for civic minded individuals, developing a sense of citizenship that goes beyond narrower forms of identity such as ethnicity and religion, which is essential in the transformation of society (Thompson 2014: 1).